Dr.Avinash Bohra

 Growth and Production in bacteria Unlike in multicellular organisms, increases in cell size ( cell growth and reproduction by cell division ) are tightly linked in unicellular organisms. Bacteria grow to a fixed size and then reproduce through binary fission , a form of asexual reproduction . [ 92 ] Under optimal conditions, bacteria can grow and divide extremely rapidly, and bacterial populations can double as quickly as every 9.8 minutes. [ 93 ] In cell division, two identical clone daughter cells are produced. Some bacteria, while still reproducing asexually, form more complex reproductive structures that help disperse the newly formed daughter cells. Examples include fruiting body formation by Myxobacteria and aerial hyphae formation by Streptomyces , or budding. Budding involves a cell forming a protrusion that breaks away and produces a daughter cell. A colony of Escherichia coli [ 94 ] In the laboratory, bacteria are usually grown usin...

General Characteristics of Algae Algae are eukaryotic organisms that have no roots, stems, or leaves but do have chlorophyll and other pigments for carrying out photosynthesis. Algae can be multicellular or unicellular. Unicellular algae occur most frequently in water, especially in plankton. Phytoplankton is the population of free‐floating microorganisms composed primarily of unicellular algae. In addition, algae may occur in moist soil or on the surface of moist rocks and wood. Algae live with fungi in lichens.   According to the Whittaker scheme, algae are classified in seven divisions, of which five are considered to be in the Protista kingdom and two in the Plantae kingdom. The cell of an alga has eukaryotic properties, and some species have flagella with the “9‐plus‐2” pattern of microtubules .   A nucleus is present, and multiple chromosomes are observed in mitosis. The chlorophyll and other pigments occur in chloroplasts , which contain memb...

Microorganisms and all other living organisms are classified as prokaryotes or eukaryotes. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are distinguished on the basis of their cellular characteristics. For example, prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and other memorane‐bound structures known as organelles, while eukaryotic cells have both a nucleus and organelles (Figure ). The important cellular features of (a) a prokaryotic cell (a bacterium) and (b) a eukaryotic cell . Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are similar in several ways. Both types of cells are enclosed by cell membranes (plasma membranes), and both use DNA for their genetic information. Prokaryotes include several kinds of microorganisms, such as bacteria and cyanobacteria. Eukaryotes include such microorganisms as fungi, protozoa, and simple algae. Viruses are considered neither prokaryotes nor eukaryotes because they lack the characteristics of living things, except the ability to replicate (which they accomplish only in living ce...

General Characteristics of True Fungi (Mycota or Eumycota) 1. All are eukaryotic Possess membrane-bound nuclei (containing chromosomes) and a range of membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles (e.g. mitochondria, vacuoles, endoplasmic reticulum). 2. Most are filamentous Composed of individual microscopic filaments called hyphae , which exhibit apical growth and which branch to form a network of hyphae called a mycelium . 3. Some are unicellular e.g. yeasts . 4. Protoplasm of a hypha or cell is surrounded by a rigid wall Composed primarily of chitin and glucans, although the walls of some species contain cellulose. 5. Many reproduce both sexually and asexually Both sexual and asexual reproduction often result in the production of spores. 6. Their nuclei are typically haploid and hyphal compartments are often multinucleate Although the Oomycota and some yeasts possess diploid nuclei. 7. All are achlorophy...

Areas of Specialization in Botany   PLANT BIOLOGY SPECIALTIES Microscopic plant structure (cells and tissues). BIOCHEMISTRY - chemical aspects of plant life processes. Includes the chemical products of plants ( PHYTOCHEMISTRY ). BIOPHYSICS - application of physics to plant life processes. CYTOLOGY - structure, function, and life history of plant cells. roscopic plant structure (cells and tissues). ECOLOGY - relationships between plants and the world in which they live, both individually and in communities. GENETICS - plant heredity and variation. Plant geneticists study genes and gene function in plants. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY - structure and function of biological macromolecules, including biochemical and molecular aspects of genetics. MORPHOLOGY - macroscopic plant form. Morphologists also study the evolution and development of lea...